Keywords
cardiovascular disease
estrogen deficiency
atherosclerosis
hypertension
How to Cite
Abstract
Menopause is a natural biological transition characterized by the permanent cessation of menstruation and a marked decline in ovarian estrogen production. Although menopause itself is not a disease, it is associated with significant cardiovascular, metabolic, and vascular changes that may increase the risk of hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, arterial stiffness, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, stroke, and heart failure. Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death among women globally, and the risk rises noticeably after the menopausal transition. According to the World Health Organization, cardiovascular diseases caused an estimated 19.8 million deaths in 2022, representing about 32% of all global deaths.
References
1.
World Health Organization. Cardiovascular diseases. WHO Fact Sheet, 2025.
2.
El Khoudary SR, et al. Menopause Transition and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Implications for Timing of Early Prevention. Circulation. 2020.
3.
European Society of Cardiology. Menopause potentially linked to adverse cardiovascular health through blood fat profile changes. ESC Press Release, 2024.
4.
Fasero M, et al. Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Women with Menopause. 2025.
5.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About Women and Heart Disease. 2024.
6.
World Heart Federation. Women and cardiovascular disease.
7.
Vallée A. Menopause and risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. 2025
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
